The history of the Iban longhouses in Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) is deeply intertwined with the migration, settlement patterns, and cultural development of the Iban people, who are part of the larger Dayak ethnic group.The Iban people are believed to have originated from the Kapuas River basin in what is now the Indonesian province of West Kalimantan. Over several centuries, they migrated northward and eastward, settling along the river systems of Borneo. This migration was driven by various factors, including population pressures, conflicts with neighboring groups, and the search for new agricultural lands. As the Iban migrated, they established settlements along the rivers and in the interior of Borneo. The longhouse emerged as the predominant architectural form for these communities. The design of the longhouse, elevated on stilts and housing multiple families, was well-suited to the riverine and forested environment of Borneo, providing protection against floods, wild animals, and pests.

Cultural Development: The longhouse served not only as a shelter but also as the focal point of social, economic, and cultural life for the Iban communities. Within the longhouse, extended families lived together, sharing resources and labor. Community gatherings, ceremonies, and rituals took place in the central corridor or veranda, known as the ruai. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Iban people came into contact with European colonial powers, particularly the British in Sarawak and the Dutch in Kalimantan. This period saw changes in the political and economic landscape of Borneo, including the establishment of colonial administrations and the expansion of cash-crop agriculture. In the 20th century, the Iban longhouse way of life underwent significant changes due to factors such as modernization, urbanization, and government policies aimed at resettlement and development. Many Iban communities transitioned from subsistence agriculture to cash-crop cultivation and engaged in wage labor in logging, mining, and other industries. Despite these changes, the longhouse remains a symbol of cultural identity and continuity for the Iban people. While some longhouses have been modernized or replaced by individual houses, others continue to uphold traditional customs and practices, preserving the communal spirit and heritage of the Iban community.

The design and construction of traditional Iban longhouses were not typically attributed to a single architect or individual. Instead, they were the result of collective knowledge, craftsmanship, and community effort passed down through generations. Longhouse construction was a communal undertaking, with members of the community working together to gather materials, prepare the site, and build the structure. Skills and techniques for constructing longhouses were learned through apprenticeship and hands-on experience, with older members of the community teaching younger generations.

The design of traditional Iban longhouses evolved over time in response to the needs and challenges of the environment. Longhouses were adapted to the riverine and forested landscapes of Borneo, with features such as raised platforms, stilted structures, and thatched roofs serving practical purposes such as protection from floods, wildlife, and the elements. While specific individuals may have played leadership roles or had specialized knowledge in certain aspects of longhouse construction, the design and construction process was fundamentally a collective endeavor shaped by the shared experiences, traditions, and ingenuity of the community as a whole.

The stilted structure of the Iban longhouses in Sarawak and Kalimantan is a defining feature that serves both practical and cultural purposes. 

• Protection from Environmental Factors

The decision to elevate the longhouse on stilts was primarily driven by the need to protect against environmental hazards prevalent in the riverine and forested landscapes of Borneo. These hazards include flooding during the monsoon seasons, the presence of dangerous wildlife such as snakes and large insects, and the risk of waterborne diseases.

• Flood Mitigation

Borneo experiences heavy rainfall, particularly during the monsoon seasons, which can lead to flooding of riverbanks and low-lying areas. By raising the longhouse above ground level, the Iban people mitigate the risk of flood damage to their homes and belongings, ensuring the safety and security of their communities.

• Protection from Wildlife

Borneo is home to diverse and sometimes dangerous wildlife, including pythons, crocodiles, and venomous insects. Elevating the longhouse on stilts creates a barrier between the living spaces and the forest floor, reducing the likelihood of encounters with such wildlife and providing a sense of security for the residents.

• Ventilation and Air Circulation

Elevating the longhouse also facilitates better ventilation and air circulation, which helps to regulate temperature and humidity levels inside the living spaces. This is especially important in the tropical climate of Borneo, where high temperatures and humidity can contribute to discomfort and the spread of diseases.

• Pest Control

Elevating the longhouse above ground level helps to minimize the risk of pest infestations, such as termites and ants, which are common in the forested areas of Borneo. By keeping the living spaces elevated, the Iban people can protect their homes and belongings from damage caused by these pests.

• Cultural Significance

The stilted structure of the longhouse is not only practical but also carries cultural significance for the Iban people. It reflects their deep connection to the natural environment and their traditional way of life as riverine and jungle dwellers. The elevation of the longhouse symbolizes the Iban people's resilience and adaptability in the face of the challenges posed by their environment.

The layout of the longhouse is a fundamental aspect of its design, playing a crucial role in shaping the communal life and social dynamics of the Iban people in Sarawak and Kalimantan. 

• Linear Design

Longhouses are characterized by their elongated, linear layout, which reflects their name. They are typically built along the banks of rivers or streams, with the length of the longhouse following the natural contours of the land. This linear design allows for the accommodation of multiple family units while minimizing the footprint on the surrounding environment.

• Central Corridor or Veranda (Ruai)

The central corridor or veranda, known as the ruai, is the heart of the longhouse. It runs along the length of the building and serves as a communal space where residents gather for various activities. The ruai is often wide and open, providing ample room for socializing, ceremonies, and other community events.

• Individual Family Units (Bilek)

Branching off from the central corridor are individual family units, known as bilek. Each bilek is a separate living space occupied by an extended family or household. Bilek are typically partitioned off from the central corridor by walls or bamboo screens, providing privacy while still allowing for interaction with neighbors.

• Functional Areas

Within each bilek, there are designated areas for sleeping, cooking, and storage. Sleeping platforms are often raised above the ground to provide ventilation and protection from pests. Cooking areas typically feature a hearth or fireplace for preparing meals, while storage spaces are used to store food, utensils, and other household items.

• Community Facilities

Longhouses may also include communal facilities such as a shared kitchen, bathing area, and livestock pens. These facilities are often located at one end of the longhouse, away from the residential areas, to minimize disruption to the residents.

• Cultural Spaces

Longhouses serve as important cultural centers for the Iban people, where traditional customs, ceremonies, and rituals are performed. The ruai often doubles as a space for these cultural activities, providing a central location for communal gatherings and celebrations.

• Adaptations and Modernization

While traditional longhouses adhere to this basic layout, modern longhouses may incorporate adaptations and modifications to accommodate changing lifestyles and preferences. For example, some longhouses may include modern amenities such as electricity, running water, and internet access, while others may have additional recreational facilities or guest accommodations.

The construction materials used in traditional Iban longhouses in Sarawak and Kalimantan are primarily sourced from the natural environment surrounding the communities. These materials are carefully selected for their availability, durability, and suitability for the local climate. 

• Wood

Wood is the primary building material for the structural frame of the longhouse. Hardwoods such as belian (ironwood) and meranti are commonly used due to their strength and resistance to decay. These trees are harvested from the surrounding forests and processed into beams, posts, and planks for construction.

• Bamboo

Bamboo is another important material used in longhouse construction, particularly for non-structural elements such as walls, floors, and partitions. Bamboo is lightweight, flexible, and readily available in the forests of Borneo. It is often split and woven into screens or mats to create walls that provide privacy while allowing for airflow.

• Palm Leaves

Palm leaves are traditionally used for thatching the roofs of longhouses. Nipah palm leaves are commonly employed due to their durability and water-resistant properties. The leaves are harvested, dried, and layered onto the roof frame in overlapping rows to create a waterproof barrier that protects against rainfall.

• Rattan

Rattan is a vine-like plant native to the rainforests of Borneo, prized for its strength and flexibility. It is often used to bind together structural elements of the longhouse, such as securing bamboo walls or attaching palm leaf thatch to the roof frame. Rattan is also used to make furniture, baskets, and other household items.

• Sago Palm

Sago palm is another versatile plant used in longhouse construction. The trunk of the sago palm can be split into boards and used for flooring, walls, and partitions. Sago palm fibers are also woven into ropes and cords, which are used for lashing and securing structural components of the longhouse.

• Modern Materials

In some cases, modern materials such as corrugated metal sheets, concrete, and galvanized steel nails may be used in longhouse construction, particularly for roofing, flooring, and fasteners. These materials offer advantages in terms of durability, fire resistance, and ease of construction but may also detract from the traditional aesthetic of the longhouse.

The thatched roof is an iconic feature of traditional Iban longhouses in Sarawak and Kalimantan. It serves as a protective covering for the longhouse, providing insulation, shelter, and aesthetic appeal.

• Natural Material

Thatched roofs are typically constructed using palm leaves, specifically those from the nipah palm (Nypa fruticans) or other suitable palm species. These leaves are chosen for their durability, flexibility, and natural water-repellent properties, making them well-suited to the humid tropical climate of Borneo.

• Harvesting and Preparation

The process of creating a thatched roof begins with harvesting palm leaves from the surrounding forests or nearby plantations. The leaves are carefully selected and collected, then cleaned and sorted to remove any damaged or diseased portions. Once cleaned, the leaves are left to dry in the sun, which helps to remove excess moisture and prevent mold or rot.

• Layered Construction

Thatched roofs are constructed by layering the palm leaves in overlapping rows over a framework of rafters and battens. The leaves are typically laid with the concave side facing downward to ensure proper water runoff and drainage. Each layer of leaves is secured to the roof frame using rattan or other natural fibers, creating a tight and weatherproof covering.

• Waterproofing

One of the key advantages of palm leaf thatch is its natural water-repellent properties. The overlapping layers of leaves create a waterproof barrier that sheds rainwater and prevents leaks. Additionally, the tightly packed nature of the thatch helps to insulate the interior of the longhouse, keeping it cool in hot weather and providing protection from the elements.

• Maintenance

Thatched roofs require regular maintenance to ensure their longevity and effectiveness. This may include replacing damaged or worn-out palm leaves, repairing any areas where the thatch has become loose or dislodged, and treating the roof with natural preservatives to prevent decay and insect infestations.

• Cultural Significance

The thatched roof is not only a practical feature of the longhouse but also holds cultural significance for the Iban people. It is a symbol of tradition, craftsmanship, and connection to the natural environment. The process of harvesting, preparing, and constructing a thatched roof often involves communal effort, with members of the community coming together to help with the labor-intensive task.

Individual living spaces within the Iban longhouse, known as "bilek," are essential components of the communal dwelling's architecture and play a significant role in the daily lives and social dynamics of the community. Here's a detailed exploration of bilek:

• Family Units

Bilek are individual family units or households within the longhouse. Each bilek typically accommodates an extended family or a nuclear family, depending on the size and layout of the longhouse. It serves as the primary living quarters for its occupants, providing privacy and security within the larger communal setting.

• Layout and Design

Bilek are usually partitioned off from the central corridor or veranda (ruai) by walls, bamboo screens, or curtains. The size and layout of each bilek can vary depending on the preferences and needs of the occupants. They typically include designated areas for sleeping, cooking, and storage, as well as space for socializing and relaxing.

• Sleeping Areas

Sleeping platforms or raised platforms are common features within bilek. These platforms are typically constructed from wood or bamboo and elevated above the ground to provide ventilation and protection from pests. Mats, blankets, and pillows are placed on the sleeping platforms to create comfortable sleeping arrangements for the occupants.

• Cooking Facilities

Many bilek include a designated area for cooking, typically featuring a hearth or fireplace for preparing meals. Cooking facilities may be simple or more elaborate, depending on the resources and preferences of the occupants. Traditional cooking methods, such as using open fires or wood stoves, are common in bilek.

• Storage Spaces

Storage is an important consideration within bilek, as it allows occupants to store food, utensils, clothing, and other household items. Storage spaces may include shelves, cabinets, or chests, as well as hanging racks or hooks for hanging clothes and kitchenware. Keeping the living space organized and clutter-free is essential for maintaining a comfortable and functional environment.

• Privacy and Social Interaction

While bilek provide individual living spaces for families, they are also interconnected with the larger communal setting of the longhouse. Residents have opportunities for social interaction and engagement with their neighbors on the ruai and during communal activities. Bilek strike a balance between privacy and social interaction, allowing occupants to maintain their personal space while participating in community life.

• Adaptations and Modernization

In modern longhouses, bilek may incorporate modern amenities such as electricity, running water, and modern kitchen appliances. However, traditional elements such as sleeping platforms and cooking hearths may still be retained, preserving the cultural heritage and architectural identity of the longhouse.

Cultural practices within traditional Iban longhouses are deeply rooted in the community's beliefs, rituals, and social organization. While customs may vary among different longhouse communities, several cultural practices are commonly observed.

• Rituals and Ceremonies

Traditional longhouses serve as the focal point for various rituals and ceremonies that mark important stages in the life of the community. These may include agricultural festivals, rites of passage such as weddings and coming-of-age ceremonies, and religious rituals to appease spirits and ensure the well-being of the community.

• Community Gatherings

Longhouses provide a communal space where residents gather for socializing, storytelling, and other forms of cultural expression. The central veranda (ruai) is often used for communal meals, music and dance performances, and other forms of entertainment. These gatherings strengthen social bonds and reinforce the sense of community identity.

• Elders and Oral Tradition

Longhouse communities place great value on the wisdom and experience of their elders, who play important roles as custodians of oral tradition and cultural knowledge. Elders pass down stories, legends, and traditional practices to younger generations, preserving the cultural heritage of the community.

• Spiritual Beliefs

Traditional Iban spirituality is animistic, with beliefs in the presence of spirits in the natural world. Longhouses are often adorned with symbolic decorations and offerings to appease these spirits and ensure their benevolence. Shamans, known as "manang," may perform rituals to communicate with spirits and provide spiritual guidance to the community.

Regarding the practice of placing the skulls of deceased ancestors during the construction of a longhouse, this is a historical custom that was practiced by some Iban communities in the past. Known as "antu pala" or "headhunting trophies," these skulls were believed to confer protection and prosperity to the longhouse and its residents. However, this practice has largely died out in modern times due to changes in cultural norms, religious beliefs, and legal prohibitions on headhunting. While the practice of displaying human skulls may have been part of the cultural heritage of certain Iban communities in the past, it is not a common or acceptable practice in contemporary society. Instead, modern longhouse communities may preserve and honor the memory of their ancestors through other means, such as storytelling, ancestor worship, and the preservation of cultural artifacts and traditions.

While both the Iban longhouses in Sarawak (Malaysia) and Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) share similarities in terms of architectural style and cultural significance, there are also some differences between them.

• Size and Structure

Longhouses in Sarawak tend to be larger in size compared to those in Kalimantan. Sarawak longhouses can accommodate a greater number of families, sometimes reaching lengths of over 100 meters. In contrast, Kalimantan longhouses are often smaller and may house fewer families.

• Architectural Features

While both types of longhouses are built on stilts and have a similar layout with a central corridor and individual family units branching off from it, there may be variations in architectural details. For example, roof styles and materials used for construction may differ slightly between the two regions.

• Cultural Practices 

While the Iban people share a common cultural heritage, there may be differences in specific cultural practices and traditions between Sarawak and Kalimantan. These differences can influence the way longhouses are built, decorated, and used for various ceremonies and rituals.

• Regional Influences

Longhouses in both Sarawak and Kalimantan are influenced by the natural environment and cultural history of their respective regions. Factors such as available building materials, local customs, and interactions with neighboring communities can contribute to variations in longhouse architecture and design.

• Legal and Administrative Boundaries

The division between Sarawak and Kalimantan is a modern administrative boundary, and while there are cultural and historical ties between the Iban communities on both sides, there are also differences shaped by national policies, laws, and governance structures.

In modern times, there has been a significant shift in lifestyle and living preferences among younger generations of Iban people in Sarawak and Kalimantan. While traditional longhouses continue to hold cultural and symbolic significance, many young people are opting to migrate to urban areas, including cities and towns, in search of education, employment, and better opportunities.

• Education and Employment Opportunities

Urban areas often offer better access to educational institutions, vocational training programs, and employment opportunities in various industries, including government, commerce, and services. Young people may choose to pursue higher education or seek employment prospects in urban centers to improve their socio-economic status.

• Modern Amenities and Infrastructure

Urban areas typically provide access to modern amenities and infrastructure, such as electricity, running water, sanitation facilities, healthcare services, and transportation networks. These amenities may be lacking or limited in rural areas, making urban living more attractive to young people seeking convenience and comfort.

• Social and Cultural Influences

Urbanization brings exposure to diverse cultures, lifestyles, and social trends, which may influence the preferences and aspirations of young people. The allure of urban living, with its opportunities for socializing, entertainment, and personal development, may draw young Iban individuals away from traditional longhouse communities.

• Economic Opportunities

Urban areas offer a wider range of economic opportunities, including formal employment, entrepreneurship, and access to markets and resources. Young people may be motivated to seek better economic prospects in urban centers, where they can pursue careers and achieve financial independence.

While many young Iban individuals choose to migrate to urban areas for education and employment opportunities, it's important to note that traditional longhouses continue to play a significant role in preserving cultural heritage and community identity. Some young people may maintain connections to their ancestral longhouse communities, returning for cultural festivals, family gatherings, and other significant events.

Traditional Iban longhouses represent more than just architectural structures; they are the embodiment of community, culture, and heritage for the Iban people in Sarawak and Kalimantan. Through their stilted structures, communal living spaces, and cultural practices, longhouses reflect the close relationship between the Iban people and their natural environment, as well as the values of cooperation, mutual support, and respect for tradition.

The architectural design of longhouses, with their elevated platforms, central corridors, and thatched roofs, is optimized for the riverine and forested landscapes of Borneo, providing protection against floods, wildlife, and the elements while fostering social cohesion and communal living. Meanwhile, cultural practices within longhouses, including rituals, ceremonies, and oral traditions, serve to reinforce the community's identity, spirituality, and interconnectedness with the natural world.

While modernization and urbanization have brought changes to the Iban way of life and the architecture of longhouses, efforts are being made to preserve and revitalize traditional practices and cultural heritage. Longhouses continue to serve as important cultural and social institutions, where generations come together to celebrate, learn, and pass down their traditions to future generations.

In essence, the significance of traditional Iban longhouses extends beyond their physical structures; they are symbols of resilience, adaptation, and the enduring spirit of community among the Iban people. As they navigate the challenges of the modern world, longhouses remain a source of pride, identity, and cultural continuity for the Iban communities of Sarawak and Kalimantan.